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Pre-Columbian civilizations
The term pre-Columbian is used to refer to the cultures of the New World in the era before significant European influence. While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus, in practice the term usually includes indigenous cultures as they continued to develop until they were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or even centuries after Columbus first landed in 1492 CE.
The term pre-Columbian is used especially often in discussions of the great indigenous civilizations of the New World, such as those of Mesoamerica (e.g., the Aztec and Maya) and the Andes (Inca, Moche, Chibcha, etc).Some pre-Columbian civilizations appear to have established characteristics such as permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, and complex societal hierarchies. Many of these civilizations had long ceased to function by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th - early 16th centuries), and are known only through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical accounts of the time. A few (such as the Maya) had their own written records which can shed light on their development and history.
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Where they persist, the societies and cultures which are descended from these civilizations may now be substantively different in form to that of the original. However, many of these peoples and their descendants still uphold various traditions and practices which relate back to these earlier times, even if combined with those more recently-adopted.The Americas are thought to have been first inhabited by Asian nomads who crossed the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering strait. Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the continent. Exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is subject to much debate. The perhaps slightly more standard view is that the earliest people were of the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,500 years ago. However, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been suggested if not widely accepted, and genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 to 13,000 years ago. Also, multiple waves of immigration have been suggested.
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In any case, artifacts have been found in both North and South America which have been dated to about 10,000 BC, and humans are thought to have reached Cape Horn at the southern tip of South America by this time. All theories agree that the Inuit and related peoples arrived separately and at a much later date, probably around the 6th century, moving across the ice from Siberia into Canada.Prehistory
After the migration or migrations, it was several thousand years before the first complex civilizations arose, at the earliest emerging 5000 BC. The inhabitants of the Americas were hunter-gatherers and even after the emergence of advanced civilizations, such societies inhabited most of the continents' area until the 18th century. Numerous archaeological cultures can be identified with some of the classifications including Early Paleo-Indian Period, Late Paleo-Indian Period, Archaic Period, Early Woodland Period, Middle Woodland Period and Late Woodland Period.
Agricultural development
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Early inhabitants of the Americans developed agriculture, breeding maize (corn) from ears 2-5 cm in length to perhaps 10-15 cm in length. Potatoes, tomatoes, pumpkins and avocados were among other plants grown by Natives. They did not develop extensive livestock as there were few suitable species; however the guinea pig was raised for meat in the Andes. By the 15th century AD, maize had been transmitted from Mexico and was being farmed in the Mississippi River Valley, but further developments were cut short by the arrival of Europeans. Potatoes were utilized by the Inca and chocolate by the Aztec.
North America
When the Europeans arrived, many natives of North America were semi-nomadic tribes of hunter-gatherers; others were sedentary and agricultural civilizations. Many formed new tribes or confederations in response to European colonization. Well-known groups included the Huron, Mohawk, Apache, Cherokee, Sioux, Mohegan, Iroquois, and Inuit. Although not as technologically advanced or politically complex as the Mesoamerican civilizations further south, there were extensive Pre-Columbian sedentary societies in what is now the United States of America.
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